Company Profile of Sony Essay Example for Free

Company Profile of Sony Essay Company Profile Sony is synonymous with consumer electronics. Its especially big in TVs and game consoles like PlayStation3. Officially named Sony Kabushiki Kaisha, the company designs, develops, manufactures, and sells a host of electronic equipment, instruments, and devices for consumer, professional, and industrial markets. Professional products include semiconductors and components. A top global media conglomerate, Sony boasts additional assets in the areas of music (Sony Music Entertainment), film (Sony Pictures Entertainment and Sony Digital Production), DVDs (Sony Pictures Home Entertainment), and TV (Sony Pictures Television). Sony also has several financial services businesses and an advertising agency in Japan. History Sony found its beginning in the wake of World War II. In 1946, Masaru Ibuka started an electronics shop in a bomb-damaged department store building in Tokyo. The company had $530 in capital and a total of eight employees. The next year, he was joined by his colleague, Akio Morita, and they founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation). The company built Japans first tape recorder, called the Type-G. In 1958 the company name was changed to Sony. In the early 1950s, Ibuka traveled in the United States and heard about Bell Labs invention of the transistor. He convinced Bell to license the transistor technology to his Japanese company, for use in communications. Ibukas company made the first commercially successful transistor radios.According to Schiffer, Sonys TR-63 radio cracked open the U.S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics. By the mid-1950s, American teens had begun buying portable transistor radios in huge numbers, helping to propel the fledgling industry from an estimated 100,000 units in 1955 to 5 million units by the end of 1968. Origin of name When Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo was looking for a Romanized name to use to market them, they strongly considered using their initials, TTK. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was known as TKK. The company occasionally used the acronym Totsuko in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was Tokyo Teletech until Akio Morita discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name. The name Sony was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word Sonus, which is the root of sonic and sound, and the other was Sonny, a familiar term used in 1950s America to call a boy. The first Sony-branded product, the TR-55 transistor radio, appeared in 1955 but the company name did not change to Sony until January 1958. At the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use Roman letters to spell its name instead of writing it in kanji. The move was not without opposition: TTKs principal bank at the time, Mitsui, had strong feelings about the name. They pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was firm, however, as he did not want the company name tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and Mitsui Banks chairman gave their approval Vision To create exciting new digital entertainment experiences for consumers by bringing together cutting-edge products with latest generation content and services. Mission As a mission and goal, Sony is dedicated to providing innovative products and multimedia services that challenge the way consumers experience digital entertainment. As a digital entertainment service provider Sony wants create  new worlds via their products to give consumers new experiences that can stimulate their senses. For their computer entertainment sector their mission and goal is to find the most talented developers to produce caliber products that continually raise the standards. The firm wants to create family products that change the way they experience home entertainment such as television, gaming, and movies. To change the way families enjoy home entertainment Sonys PlayStation 3 integrates all aspects of home entertainment. The gaming console is a versatile machine where consumers can play video games, watch movies through the Blu-ray player and stream movies and shows through Netflix. The PlayStation 3 has changed the way individuals enjoy digital entertainment. Boosting Sony’s Electronics Business A key focus for Sony is to strengthen its all-important electronics business and maintain market leadership in high profile areas such as televisions, digital imaging, home video equipment and portable audio. To achieve this, Sony is pursuing three corporate initiatives: The Customer Viewpoint Initiative emphasizes the importance to staff of viewing Sony, its products and services from a customer perspective. The Technology Nr. 1 Initiative focuses on reinforcing Sony’s cutting-edge technologies in the areas targeted for maximum investment of resources, including televisions, home video equipment, digital imaging equipment and Walkman ®. The Genba Initiative aims at strengthening frontline operations (‘genba’ in Japanese) such as design locations, manufacturing facilities and sales offices. Formats and technologies Sony has historically been notable for creating its own in-house standards for new recording and storage technologies, instead of adopting those of  other manufacturers and standards bodies. Sony (either alone or with partners) has introduced several of the most popular recording formats, including the floppy disk, Compact Disc, and Blu-ray Disc. Sony delivers thrilling digital entertainment experiences by capitalising on the synergy between its electronics business, content creation capabilities and movie, music, mobile and computer games interests. As a world leader in high definition, Sony already offers an exciting range of broadcast and consumer HD products, as well as content assets that are driving the industry towards HD digitization. Sony is the only company that can deliver complete, end-to-end solutions for todays HD World. We provide the tools for our customers to create, edit, store, share and enjoy High Definition content. Sony Pictures and Sony Computer Entertainment create movies and games that maximise the full power and potential of HD while independent film makers and programme producers are encouraged to realize their unique creative vision in full Sony HD. Business units Sony offers a number of products in a variety of product lines around the world. Sony has developed a music playing robot called Rolly, dog-shaped robots called AIBO and a humanoid robot called QRIO. As of 1 April 2012, Sony is organized into the following business segments: Imaging Products Solutions (IPS), Game, Mobile Products Communications (MPC), Home Entertainment Sound (HES), Devices, Pictures, Music, Financial Services and All Other. The network and medical businesses are included in the All Other. Sony Corporation Sony Corporation is the electronics business unit and the parent company of the Sony Group. It primarily conducts strategic business planning of the group, research and development (RD), planning, designing and marketing for electronics products. Its subsidiaries such as Sony EMCS Corporation (6  plants in Japan), Sony Semiconductor Corporation (7 plants in Japan) and its subsidiaries outside Japan (Brazil, China, England, India, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, Ireland and United States) are responsible for manufacturing as well as product engineering (Sony EMCS is also responsible for customer service operations). In 2012, Sony rolled most of its consumer content services (including video, music, and gaming) into the Sony Entertainment Network. Medical-related business Sony Mobile Communications AB (formerly Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB) is a multinational mobile phone manufacturing company headquartered in Tokyo, Japan and a wholly owned subsidiary of Sony Corporation. In 2001, Sony entered into a joint venture with Swedish telecommunications company Ericsson, forming Sony Ericsson. Initial sales were rocky, and the company posted losses in 2001 and 2002. However, SMC reached a profit in 2003. Sony Ericsson distinguished itself with multimedia-capable mobile phones, which included features such as cameras. These were unusual for the time. Despite their innovations, SMC faced intense competition from Apples iPhone, released in 2007. From 2008 to 2010, amid a global recession, SMC slashed its workforce by several thousand. Sony acquired Ericssons share of the venture in 2012 for over US$1 billion. In 2009, SMC was the fourth-largest mobile phone manufacturer in the world (after Nokia, Samsung and LG). By 2010, its market share had fallen to sixth place. Sony Mobile Communications now focuses exclusively on the smartphone market. Sony Computer Entertainment Sony Computer Entertainment is best known for producing the popular line of PlayStation consoles. The line grew out of a failed partnership with Nintendo. Originally, Nintendo requested for Sony to develop an add-on for its console that would play Compact Discs. In 1991 Sony announced the add-on, as well as a dedicated console known as the Play Station. However, a disagreement over software licensing for the console caused the  partnership to fall through. Sony then continued the project independently. Sony Pictures Entertainment Sony Pictures Entertainment, Inc. (SPE) is the television and film production/distribution unit of Sony. With 12.5% box office market share in 2011, the company was ranked 3rd among movie studios. Its group sales in 2010 were US$7.2 billion. The company has produced many notable movie franchises, including Spider-Man, The Karate Kid, and Men in Black. It has also produced popular television game shows Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune. Sony entered the television and film production market when it acquired Columbia Pictures Entertainment in 1989 for $3.4 billion. Columbia lives on in the Columbia TriStar Motion Picture Group, a subsidiary of SPE which in turn owns TriStar Pictures and Columbia Pictures. SPEs television division is known as Sony Pictures Television. For the first several years of its existence, Sony Pictures Entertainment performed poorly, leading many to suspect the company would sell off the division. Sony Pictures Entertainment encountered controversy in the early 200 0s. In July 2000, a marketing executive working for Sony Corporation created a fictitious film critic, David Manning, who gave consistently good reviews for releases from Sony subsidiary Columbia Pictures that generally received poor reviews amongst real critics. Sony later pulled the ads, suspended Mannings creator and his supervisor and paid fines to the state of Connecticut and to fans who saw the reviewed films in the US. In 2006 Sony started using ARccOS Protection on some of their film DVDs, but later issued a recall. Environmental record In November 2011, Sony was ranked 9th (jointly with Panasonic) in Greenpeaces Guide to Greener Electronics. This chart grades major electronics companies on their environmental work. The company scored 3.6/10, incurring a penalty point for comments it has made in opposition to energy efficiency standards in California. It also risks a further penalty point in future editions for being a member of trade associations that have commented against energy efficiency standards.Together with Philips, Sony receives the highest score for energy policy advocacy after calling on the  EU to adopt an unconditional 30% reduction target for greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. Meanwhile, it receives full marks for the efficiency of its products. In 2007, Sony ranked 14th on the Greenpeace guide. Sony fell from its earlier 11th place ranking due to Greenpeace’s claims that Sony had double standards in their waste policies.[ Since 1976, Sony has had an Environmental Conference. Sonys policies address their effects on global warming, the environment, and resources. They are taking steps to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that they put out as well as regulating the products they get from their suppliers in a process that they call green procurement. Sony has said that they have signed on to have about 75 percent of their Sony Building running on geothermal power. The Sony Take Back Recycling Program allow consumers to recycle the electronics products that they buy from Sony by taking them to eCycle (Recycling) drop-off points around the U.S. The company has also developed a biobattery that runs on sugars and carbohydrates that works similarly to the way living creatures work. This is the most powerful small biobattery to date.

Different types of news reporting on Steven Regrave Essay Example for Free

Different types of news reporting on Steven Regrave Essay For my media coursework I will be looking at different types of news reporting on Steven Regrave and his fifth Gold medal win. The papers I will be looking are the observers and The Daily Mirror. I will follow the coverage of the British coxless fours triumph in the rowing event final in Sydney 2000. Also I will be looking at the ways Television and Internet are you used for a good reason at showing the news. I will compare each and find out which is the best resource for the news. Newspapers Tabloid The tabloid newspaper I shall be covering is the Daily Mirror. The Daily mirror is a very simple newspaper to pick up and read. If you walk into a Newsagents today and look around you will recognise this Tabloid newspaper, as it has a big picture covering most of the front page, bright colours and large words. Also normaly the main news story will have a clever pun in the title: Oarsome Foursome which is the same pun I used for the title for my essay. All these pictures, bright colours and large font all catch the eye, which will possibly make you pick up the newspaper. The Daily Mirror always uses catchy clever witty puns, which often make people laugh and grin. These puns attract people to reads the paper as it gives a sort of comic relief from possible grim news. The Daily Mirror uses a lot of subtitles and quotes between large pieces of text, which breaks up large reading which makes the tabloid so easy for quick and simple reading for lets say the average man. What possibly makes the papers easy to read its basic Layout, which contains many pictures of the days news. Sydney 2000 was no different. Many different pictures showed all events particuly English athletes competing especially Steven Redgrave going for his fifth gold medal. Lots of pictures make it easy for the eye. In this tabloid newspaper you can look at the newspaper and you will get the story without having to read. The paper consists of many little sentences which give you a sense of what is happening but makes it a lot easier and quicker to read. The mirror article provided very basic information with short interviews and direct speech, to make up for lack of solid facts. Possibly what makes the daily mirror or any other tabloid newspaper so quick to read is the language used. Language is simple quick and short to read Broadsheet Broadsheet newspapers such as the Observer are, almost the complete opposite of Tabloid newspapers such as the daily mirror. For a start the front main page does not consist of bright colours or large coloured words across the whole page. The first thing noticeable about a front page of a broadsheet is the title every single time is normaly very serious which gives an impression that the story being covered will have immense detail, which makes people who are interested in the story a good idea what to expect. Also there are very few subtitles within the text of the story. This makes the contents flow quickly.

Theoretical Approaches Of The Elderly Abuse Social Work Essay

Theoretical Approaches Of The Elderly Abuse Social Work Essay 2-1- Introduction In the upcoming chapter, the title will be review of research literature. This chapter considered as the heart of research supervises al the time research stages and is theoretical and performance guidance of research. This chapter consists of three main topics. The first topic titled review of research theoretical literature deals with theoretical approaches of the elderly abuse including definition, forms and associated theories. Outlines and former subject researches about the elderly abuse which have been done by different domestic and international researchers in forms of bachelor, master, doctoral theses or research projects were labeled as review of experimental research literature and forms the second topic of this chapter. And finally, the last topic which will be discussed in this chapter is elective theoretical research frame that we will try to review the former two topics (theoretical and experimental literature) and discuss theories and approaches which will be used reg arding the influential factors on elderly abuse in Malaysia and based on them other stages of research will be followed up in future chapters. Now in this part, firstly theoretical fundamentals of research will be discussed and then the assessment of experimental research literature inside and outside of the country will be covered: 2-2- Review of theoretical literature The following sentences relates to theoretical dimensions and conceptive environment of research topic. In another word, explanations and theoretical approaches about the elderly abuse including definition and effective factors are issues that will be covered and it will be tried that by exploring these topics, thought and mind environments of research will be clarified and we would be able to provide a background for future chapters, particularly results, conclusion, and suggestions. 2-2-1- The Definition of the Abuse of the Elderly Although there is an absence of agreed or standard definitions of abuse, commented on by McCreadie (1996) and others, a number of definitions of elder abuse have emerged. Early attempts at defining mistreatment in the UK context were relatively specific as seen, for example, in the following: A single or repeated act or lack of appropriate action occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person (Action on Elder Abuse, 1995) However, later definitions tend to have been more widely drawn, as in the recent government document, No Secrets, in which the definition is given as: Abuse is a violation of an individuals civil or human rights by any other person or persons (DoH, 2000). Given the lack of consensus concerning definition, which ultimately may not result in any major difficulty (Penhale, 1993), it is at least reassuring to find that most people concerned with the issue agree on the different types of mistreatment that can happen. The usual types of mistreatment included within most definitions are physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, financial abuse (also referring to exploitation and misappropriation of an individuals property and possessions), psychological and emotional abuse. When considering neglect, separate, stand-alone definitions do not usually appear, with neglect often appearing as a sub-type of abuse. Thus in the Social Services Inspectorate (1993) definition, elder abuse is described as: . . . physical, sexual, psychological or financial. It may be intentional or unintentional or the result of neglect (DoH, 1993, para 2.1). More recently, draft guidance issued by the Social Services Inspectorate indicates that abuse may occur: . . . as a result of a failure to undertake action or appropriate care tasks. It may be physical, psychological, or an act of neglect . . . (DoH, 1999, para 2.7). Neglect and acts of omission are then further delineated as: . . . including ignoring medical or physical care needs, failure to provide access to appropriate health, social care or educational services, the withholding of the necessities of life, such as medication, adequate nutrition and heating (DoH, 1999, para 2.8). To these may be added such categories as enforced isolation and deprivation of necessary items for daily living (warmth, food or other aspects, such as teeth). In general, however, situations of self-neglect by an older person would not be considered within the UK perspective of mistreatment. Although many practitioners work with older individuals who self-neglect, usually this is not considered within an elder mistreatment or indeed an adult protection framework. Abuse within institutions also encompasses situations that arise because of the regime or system that may operate in the unit in addition to individual acts of abuse that occur. There also may be abusive situations that arise between a resident and a member of care staff, initiated by the older person as protagonist, so there may be dual directionality of abuse, or unidirectional abuse from resident towards staff member (McCreadie, 1996). Neglect within institutions may arguably be more pervasive and insidious, affecting the daily lives of many residents in a myriad of ways, from overt to covert. According to the American Medical Association Council on Scientific Affairs (1987), with elderly abuse has several forms and definition is as follows: any act of commission or omission that results in harm or threatened harm to the health and benefit of an old people. The Select Committee on Aging defined the following categories of abuse: physical abuse, Neglect, emotional abuse, financial abuse, and self-neglect. In its most common usage, elder abuse is an all-inclusive term representing all types of mistreatment or abusive behavior toward older adults. Abusive acts include the following: striking, burning, threatening, abandoning, starving older adults, or taking their property without consent. If an act of violence, such as a slap, occurs only once, by most standards it is probably not considered to be elder abuse. If it happens fairly often or results in the hospitalization of the victim, the action is deemed abuse; likewise, threatening with a gun, sexual assault, or other mark edly violent acts need only occur once (Wolf, 2000).A shocking way for elderly people to spend their final days is in a state of maltreatment known as elder abuse. Although it can occur in institutions, it is most often suffered by frail elderly people living with their spouses or their children (Papalia aIds, 1995). 2-2-2- Forms of Older Adult Abuse There are many types of abuse that affect older adults. According to Gray-Vickrey (2001), the five most common types of abuses are as follows: 1. Neglect, whether intentional or unintentional, accounts for 49% of substantiated elder abuse cases. Neglect generally to happen when a care provider to not do what is excepted for an old people with adequate food, clothing, shelter, medical care, or assistance with activities of daily living. 2. Emotional abuse, the willful infliction of anguish through threats, intimidation, humiliation, and isolation, is involved in 35% of cases. 3. Financial abuse is the misuse of someones property and resources by another person. Financial or material exploitation occurs in 30% of cases. 4. Physical abuse, the use of physical forces that results in pain, impairment or bodily injury, accounts for 25% of substantiated elder abuse cases. Hitting, slapping, restraining, molesting, biting, burning, pushing, or pulling all qualify as physical abuse. 5. Sexual abuse is another extremely devastating form of the abuse of older adults. Sexual abuse can be seen as a type of physical abuse (Arbetter, 1995). However, it is often discussed separately due to the different types of harm inflicted upon older adults. In one study, researchers found that the urogenital injury due to sexual abuse was à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Prevalent among elderly people (Muram, Miller, Culter, 1992). There main sexual abuse behaviors are mentioned frequently in relevant literatures. First activity or activities which are done without any physical contacts. They something are called Hand off behaviors. A common form of hand-off abuse is to make the victim to watch pornographic sceneries, exhibition and voyeuristic activities. The second form of sexual abused is called Hand-on behaviors involving some physical contact with the victim. The third and most dramatic form of sexual abuse is a kind of painful action on victims sexual or rectal region.(Ramsey, Klawsnick, 1999). On the other hand, Pritchard (1999) introduced another category of abuse among older people which are commonly seen by health professionals: History of incest between mother and son. Husband wife sexual abuse. Older gay man abused in the community. Research is mixed concerning the victim-offender relationship in elder sexual abuse cases. Muram et al. (1992) compared the medical record of older sexual assault victims (n=53) to younger sexual assault victims (n=55) and found that older adults were more likely to be assaulted by strangers and to have the assault occur in their home. Johnson (1995) seems to agree, stating, Most sexual assaults of elderly women occur in the victims home by an assailant who is unknown to the victim (p.221). Research by Ramsey-Klawsnick (1991) and Holt (1993) suggested slightly different patterns. Ramsey-Klawsnick (1991) asked twenty adult protective service workers to identify and describe cases of sexual abuse among older adults they have seen in the past. The case workers identified twenty-eight cases of sexual abuse, with eighty one percent of the cases reportedly committed by caregivers. Seventy-eight percent of the abusers were relatives, with sons representing the majority of offenders. Research by Holt (1993), studied seventy-seven elder sexual abuse cases in Great Britain and found that fifty percent of the cases were committed by sons of the victims. None of the sexual assaults in Holts study were committed by strangers. According to NCEA (1998), sexual assault is a problem that is usually not associated with older adults, often accounting for approximately less than 1% of reported elder maltreatment cases. There is other dramatic type of psychological abuse. This kind of abuse can be demonstrated in different forms such as threats, bargaining, seduction, stalking or manipulation ( Marshal, Benton, Brazier, 2000). The most common characteristics of this kinds of abuse is their difficulty to be assessed. Johnson (1995) stated that they psychological abuse are not concrete, so they are hard to be assessed. According to Quirm and Tomita (1997), psychological abuse is an integral part of other types of abuse. Victims often report being threatened with nursing home placement if they protest physical abuse or if they threaten to tell someone outside of the family, or if they refuse to hand over money. According to NCEA (1998), psychological abuse accounted for approximately 35% of the cases of maltreatment reported in 1996. A well known form of abuse can be financial abuse which extremely traumatic in nature. In order to recognize financial abuse, it is suggested to have the following items in mind: Unusual transaction in bank activities. Older persons inability to sign other documents such as power of attorney, will or other bank drafts. Care givers disappear suddenly. D) There is a lack of amenities, when the estate can afford it (Quinn Tomita, 1997). Larue (1992) suggests that financial abuse might have been even more common than reports indicate because it is so difficult to detect. Research that relies on interviews with people in their communities instead of abuse complaints filed with governmental agencies tends to support this view. For example, Canadian researchers who randomly sampled citizens at home showed financial exploitation to be more common than neglect (Podnieks, Pillemer, Nicholson, Shillington, Frizzell, 1990). According to Welfel, Danzinger, and Santoro (2000), the financial exploitation of older adults ometimes experienced through fraudulent telemarketing schemes or through unscrupulous contractors who are strangers are not the primary domains of elder mistreatment laws. Criminal statutes relating to fraud and extortion are probably better suited to deal with such schemes. However, if a person befriends an older person and begins caring for that older adult in order to take money or material goods from him or her, that person would likely be subject to the elder abuse statutes. The most common form of the abuse of older adults is neglect, which involves failure to provide essential physical or mental care for an older person. Physical neglect includes withholding food or water, failing to provide proper hygiene, or neglecting to offer physical aid or safety precautions. Neglect needs not to be intentional; it sometimes occurs when the caregiver is unable to provide the older person with proper care (Lachs Pillemer, 1995). Overall, 49% of the reports of elder maltreatment involve neglect and maltreatment, either intentional or unintentional (NCEA, 1998). Abandonment is a particular form of neglect. The state of Connecticut defines abandonment as the desertion or willful forsaking of an elder by a caretaker or foregoing, withdrawal, or neglect of duties and obligations owned an elder by a caretaker or others (Fulmer, Mc Mahon, Baer-Hines, Forget, 1992, p. 506). According to the American College of Emergency Physicians (1999), scenarios of abandonment include family members dropping off elderly persons, boarding homes or nursing homes dropping off elderly persons, and, in some cases, elderly persons seeking out care in emergency rooms on their own because they are unable to care for themselves. There are times when the neglect older adults suffer results from their own actions or inactions. This problem is referred to as self-neglect. Older adults may self-neglect when they fail to take medications, repeatedly skip meals, use alcohol or other drugs to excess, or fail to attend to personal hygiene. Often, such self-neglect is associated with untreated physical or mental health problems, especially depression (Quinn Tomita, 1997). Tatara (1996) suggested that as many as one third of elder abuse cases involve self-neglect or self-abuse. The NCEA (1997) gathered data about self-neglect and found that self-neglect cases are those that are most often dealt with by protective service employees. Estimates of the extent of self-neglect are likely low because most elderly persons who are neglecting themselves would be unlikely to report their self-neglect to authorities (Hall, 1987). Byers and Lamanna (1993) further note that protective service workers often find these cases the mos t difficult to handle because efforts to stop the self neglect are resisted by the victim. 2-2-3 Factors that Contribute to the elder abuse Everitt, OMalley, and Campion, (1983). (a) Those focusing on the victims dependency: That is, there are a variety of factors that may contribute to older adult abuse and neglect. According to Bennett and Kingston (1993) and Biegel and Blum (1990), several factors predisposing elderly abuse by caresr include    : (1) mental and physical dependence to one family, (2) poor communication or a failure of relationship, (3) considerable change in a caregivers lifestyle,(4) perceptions of caregivers towards dependence of older persons, (5) frequent visits to general practitioners by the informal caregivers to talk about their problems, (6) role reversal, and (7) isolation of the household. Preliminary hypotheses regarding the cause of elder mistreatment that was based on case reports and early studies were reviewed by OMalley on physical and mental impairment of an older adult, (b) Those emphasizing the effect of stress on the caregiver, (c) Those concerned with the influence of families who have learned to solve problems by being violent with one another, (d) Those that focus on the individual problems of the abuser, and (e) Effects of a society, which casts older adults in the role of non-persons through ageism, sexism, and destructive attitudes toward the disabled and toward those who are perce ived to be unattractive. Several researchers have identified various risk factors that can potentially lead to mistreatment or abuse of older adults. According to Anastasio (1981), risk factors that characterize precipitators are inability to provide care, financial needs and inability to maintain ones home. For victims, the risk factors include functional impairment and adverse physiological change. There are a variety of probable causes of the abuse of older adults. Most causes of abuse are committed in residential rather than institutional settings, and the most likely culprits are spouses, children, siblings, relatives, or paid caregivers. In older persons, the most common types of maltreatment are neglect, emotional/psychological abuse, and physical abuse (Marshall, Benton, Brazier, 2000). Other risk factors in abuse are (1) shared living arrangements between the elder person and the abuser, (2) dependence of the abuser on the victim, and (3) social isolation of the elder pers on. The typical victim is an elderly person in poor health that lives with someone. Elderly people living alone, whether widowed, divorced, or never married are at low risk. The abuser is more likely to be a spouse than a child, reflecting the fact that more elderly people live with their spouses than with children; and the risk factor is greater when the caregiver is depressed (Pillemer Finkelhor, 1988: Paveza, et al. 1992). Although many older men are abused, abuse against women inflicts more injuries. Rates of violence are high in families with an elder person suffering from dementia; in these families punching, kicking, and other violent behaviors are high in both directions (Paveza, et. al., 1992). In the United States, the number of reported cases of domestic elder abuse nationwide, calculated by combining state reports and adjusting for differences in definitions and eligibility criteria, has increased steadily from 117,000 in 1986 to 296,000 in 1996 (Tatara, 1995; Tatara, Kuzmeskas, and Duckhom, 1997). 2-2-4Competing theoretical explanations of elder abuse Five major theories have been set forth in an effort to understand the causes of elder mistreatment. These theories include (a) the impairment theory, which advances the idea that elderly persons who have a severe mental impairment are most likely to be abused; (b) the theory of psychopathology of the abuser, contending that personality traits or character disorders cause persons to be abusive; (c) the transgenerational violence theory, which holds that violence is a learned normative behavior in some families; (d) the stressed caregiver theory, which examines the burdens a dependent elder places on the family; and (e) the exchange theory, which evaluates the effect of external influences upon the relationship between victim and abuser (Fulmer, 1998). Lachs fulmer (1993) reported seven leading theories or conceptual frameworks are used to examine the etiology of elder abuse. Of course, in addition to these seven theories, exchange theory has paid attention to the elderly abuse subject from the view of expenses and rewards that will be pointed out in the following of the seven theories. 2-2-4-1- Psychology of the abuser The first is psychology of the abuser, which refers to caregivers who have pre- existing condition that impair their capacity to give appropriate care. For example, a caregiver who has mental retardation or alcohol dependency may not be able to exercise appropriate judgment in care giving of older adults. This can ultimately lead to abuser neglect (Lachs fulmer, 1993). 2-2-4-2 Transgenerational violence The next Theory is related to transgenerational violence. According to this theory, elderly abuse can be a part of the continuing domestic violence that started with child abuse and elderly abuse will end. Little research has been done to obtain empirical evidence to support this theory, but the same number also emphasized on its importance. Another aspect of transgenerational violence relates to adult children that long time lived with their parents and children were abused then grow up and the elderly parents living with them are being abused. (Lachs fulmer, 1993). 2-2-4-3- Learning theory Finally, transgenerational violence has been explained in terms of a learning theory in that a child who observes violence as a coping mechanism may learn it and bring to adult life (Lachs fulmer, 1993). 2-2-4-4- Isolation theory National center on elder abuse and the American public human services association (1998) has reported isolation theory espouses that mistreatment is prompted by a dwindling social network. According to the National Elder Abuse incidence study about 25% of all elderly person live alone and even more interact only with family members and have little social interaction with the outside word. Isolated older adults are at the particular risk because there are no outsiders watching out for them, and they may not be identified by the healthcare system or reporting agencies until it is too late (Lachs fulmer, 1993). According to Godkin, Wolf, and Pillemer (1989), it is difficult to determine whether isolation is the result of mistreatment (family members or caregivers may be trying to hide the abuse from the outside word) or precipitating factor of abuse. 2-2-4-5- Identity Theory Other theories are role and identity theories. A synthesis of role theory and identity theory has provides an explanation of the effects of socially constructed roles and identities for the elderly. It assists in understanding how these socially constructed roles and identities may increase the elders vulnerability to abuse. 2-2-4-6- Role Theory In their classic text on role theory, Biddle and Thomas (1986) noted that one of the key characteristics of social behavior is the fact that human beings behave in ways that are different and predictable depending on their respective social identities and the situation. Key concepts of role theory includes: the identities that actors assume, the expectations for behavior of the actor that is mutually understood and adhered to by the individuals, and the social behaviors that are characteristic of the particular behavior. 2-2-4-7- Social exchange theory Another conceptual model that has been used to explain elder abuse has been derived from social exchange theory. Social exchange theory is based on the idea that social interaction involves the exchange of reward and punishments between at least two people and that all individuals seek to maximize reward and perform instrumental services. In fact, with increasing physical infirmities, the individual begins to require more and more in the form of instrumental services. Therefore, when one is old and infirm, violating the law of distributive justice is relatively easy. In addition, because of the losses associated with aging, the individuals potential to supplement social ties and to extend a personal power base is reduced. As a result, the individual becomes less able to reciprocate rewarding behaviors and less likely to have a choice about continuing unrewarding or punishing social exchanges with those who perform an instrumental service. Figuratively speaking, the elderly individual must begin to live on the credit accumulated over the years because there are few ways to replenish the bank. One outcome of the aging condition that Dowed predicts is that as the imbalance in power increases, the older person is likely to display more passivity and compliance and more withdrawing behaviors in an effort not to alienate the remaining few people who can provide rewards and services. 2-2-4-8- Situational theory Steinmets (1990) have explained situational theory, which is also referred to as caregiver stress. As care burdens multiply, they outweigh the caregivers capacity to meet the needs of the older adult; therefore, caregiver stress can overwhelm the situation. Elder abuse can be outcome. The situational model is the explanatory base that was the earliest devised to explain elder abuse. It also appears to be the most widely accepted at this time. Derived from the theoretical base associated predominately with child abuse and less strongly with other forms of intrafamily violence, this model has considerable intuitive appeal. In addition, among clinicians, this model has popular support, since its basic premise fit easily within an intervention framework. Very simply, the basic premise of the situational model is that as the stress associated with certain situational and/or structural factors increases for the abuser, the likelihood increases of abusive acts directed at a vulnerable individual who is seen as being associated with the stress. The situational variables that have been linked with abuse of the elderly have included 1) elder related factors such as physical and emotional dependency, poor health, impaired mental status, and a difficult personality. 2) Structural factors such as economic strains, social isolation, and environmental problems, and 3) caregiver related factors such as life crisis, burn out or exhaustion with care giving, substance abuse problems, and previous socialization experiences with violence. There is a lot of support to approve the situational model. It is obviofied us that the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ burden of stress to caregivers makes more than overwhelmed and older abuse family members. Moreover, psychological model of child abuse and interfamily violence model which are highly related to structural and situational stress. Bring up the problem of older abuse. If gives a strong approval to use situational model for abuse among older people. Finklhor and Pillemer stated that there are some similarity between child abuse and elder abuse. They found this similarity in vulnerability of abuse victim and frustration in caregivers. Moreover, both child and elder abuse share the social context and are identified by healthcare professionals. They believe that the story is true for spouse abuse, too. Whatever the reason of abuse, it can be prevented. This à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.that shows that situational model is an applicable model for elder abuse. 2-2-4-9 Physical/Mental Dependence (Impairment) This theory is based on the belief that elderly persons who have a severe mental or physical impairment are most vulnerable to becoming abused.   In relationships where one person is dependent and another person is the helper or caregiver, there is always potential for misuse of power by the caregiver. Summary of theoretical explanations To explain the causes of elder abuse, some researchers in developed countries have viewed it as a problem of an overburdened caregiver (situational model), a mentally disturbed abuser (intra-individual dynamics), or a dependent perpetrator and dependent victim (exchange theory). Others have used learned behavior (social learning theory), the imbalance of power within relationships (feminist theory), and the marginalization of elders (political economy theory), or a lack of fit between the organism and the environment (ecological theory). 2-3- Review of experimental literature Phenomenon of the elderly abuse and its forms and causes are subjects that have been explored by sociologists, social psychologists and hygiene experts to find its visible and invisible dimensions. This part of the draft, as is clear from its topic, is discussing subject experimental literature about characteristics of victims. This literature involves all performed studies and researches in the form of governmental reports, organizational researches, bachelor, master, and doctoral theses that are cited according to the year they have been performed. No one explanation for the cause of elder abuse exists. Abuse is a complex problem which is rooted in multiple factors (Wolf, 2000). Caregiver stress and burden was once regarded as a major causative factor of elder abuse. However, Anetzberger (2000) discusses the complexity of elder abuse and the results of prior studies, which suggest that the etiology of elder abuse is multifaceted, and that caregiver stress and burden is not the only dominant risk factor. She stresses that the reality of elder abuse demands the development of new explanatory and intervention models (Anetzberger, 2000). A number of socio-demographic factors have been identified as possible contributors to elder abuse. Levine (2003) lists the following factors: intra-family stressors including separation, divorce and financial strain, ageism, increased life expectancy and medical advances that have prolonged years lived with chronic disease (Levine, 2003). Elders are abused in homes, hospitals, nursing homes and in other institutions (Nelson, 2002). Prevalence or incidence data on elder abuse in institutional settings are lacking despite the vast existing literature on issues of quality of care (Wolf, 2000). Most elder abuse and neglect takes place in the home and is inflicted by family, household members and paid caregivers (Smith, 2002). A survey conducted in one US state reported that 36% of nursing and support staff reported having witnessed at least one incident of physical abuse by another staff member during the prior year and 10% admitted to having committed at least one act of physical abuse themselves (Wolf, 2000). A cross-sectional retrospective chart review of new in- and outpatients conducted by a Montreal General Hospital Division of Geriatric Psychiatry in one calendar year, studied the prevalence and correlates of four types of elder abuse and neglect in a geriatric psychiatry service (Vida, Monks, Des Rosiers, 2002) Although this study was limited by a clinically derived and a relatively small sample size of 126 patients, it was reported that elder abuse and neglect was suspected or confirmed in 16% of patients studied. Living with non-spouse family, friends, or other persons in a non-supervised setting, along with a history of family disruptions by widowhood, divorce, or separation were significantly correlated with abuse, while statistically non-significant yet potentially important identifiers included female gender, alcohol abuse, and low functional status. Elders are most at risk from family members (Nelson, 2002). The perpetrator is a family member in two-thirds of known cases of abuse and neglect and was identified as adult children or spouses (National Center on Elder Abuse, 1998). Despite the popular image of elder abuse occurring in a setting of a dependent victim and an overstressed caregiver, there is accumulating evidence that it is neither ca regiver stress levels nor the dependence level of the victim that are the core factors leading to elder abuse (Wolf, 2000). It is now felt that stress may be a contributing factor in abuse cases but it does not explain the phenomenon (Wolf, 2000). Recent studies on the relationships between caregiver stress, Alzheimers disease, and elder abuse suggest that it is the long-term or pre-abuse nature of the relationships which is the important factor in predicting instances of maltreatment (Wolf, 2000). The mental status of the perpetrator which includes emotional, psychiatric, and substance a buse problems, the dependency of the perpetrator on the victim, and the lack of outside the home external support for the victim continue to emerge as elder abuse risk factors (Wolf, 2000). A cohort of 2,812 community-dwelling adults over the age of 65 from the

The Portrayal of Murder in The Speckled Band and Lamb to the Slaughter :: Sherlock Holmes Arthur Doyle Roald Dahl Essays

The Portrayal of Murder in The Speckled Band and Lamb to the Slaughter The two stories we are comparing are the 1880`s Sherlock Homes murder mystery tail "The Speckled Band" and the second story is the1900`s thriller "Lamb to the Slaughter". The Speckled Band is an on the edge murder mystery tail, this is one of the many Sherlock Homes tails, it was written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in the late Victorians 180`s. Lamb to the Slaughter is a very short thriller, this story was written by the great child's Author Roald Dahl in the 1950`s. In this essay we are not comparing the two stories we are comparing and contrasting the two murders which are. In "Lamb to the Slaughter" the murderer is Mrs Mary Maloney, Mrs Maloney is a pretty woman about 5ft with long dark hair and big brown eyes. She is six months pregnant and is a very loving and caring woman who is extremely organised. The victim that Mrs Maloney killed was none other than her Husband Mr Maloney. Mary new that her husband was having an a affair with another Woman, so when Mr Maloney came home from work one night Mrs Maloney lashed out and smashed her husband around the back of his head with an frozen leg of lamb that she had just taken out of the freezer for supper. Mrs Maloney immediately put the frozen leg of lamb in the Oven and then called the police and told them that her husband had been murdered while she was out. After she killed her husband she went into her bedroom and sat there for half an hour thinking of what to do and say to the police. In the end she thought up of a story, she went out of the house 2 get some Items for the meal when she got back she saw her husband and called the police. When the police arrived she said that while she was out he was murdered, the police checked up on that and it was true. The police tried 2 find the murder weapon around the house and garden and after there search Mrs Maloney insisted that they ate the food she had cooked because she was not up to it, so they did the 3 police officers ate the lamb and the evidence they had spent all day looking for. So in the end Mrs Maloney made up a story before she called the police and after she had murdered Mr Maloney and she got away with murder. The Second story "The Speckled Band" the murderer was Doctor Grimesby

The Samurai and the Bushido Code Essay -- Japan, Elite Warriors, Bushi

The samurai were à ©lite warriors in Japan during the 1200’s to the early 1700’s. Fifth century Japan saw conflicts with Korea and China, but Japan had a very untrained army, with a clumsy Calvary, and poor infantry men (Blumberg 1). The reason was that horses were seen as a burden and were never bred to be strong, fast, and large for war purposes (Blumberg 2). In the 6th and 9th centuries, a series of rebellions in Japan began from the Emishi people of the northern home islands; these country people were very well-trained in mounted archery. The nimble Emishi would defeat the Japanese riders with ease (Blumberg 2). But during the war against the Emishi, Japan learned to breed horses for fighting, adapted new fighting methods, and developed new weapons. They replaced the slow, straight-sword with two curved blades that were faster and lighter. For the next 350 years, infantry was replaced with mounted archers, and we start to see the 13th century samurai form (Blumber g 3). The Bushido Code, the code that all samurai follow, helped form medieval Japan. The warrior class and ruling class in the 13th century to the 17th century were known as the samurai (Clark 1). The samurai were skilled in archery, swordsmanship, horseback riding, and martial arts: the ability to kill with their bare hands (Clark 2). The two swords that the samurai used were the katana, a curved, medium-sized blade used for two-handed combat, and the wakizashi, a dagger or small-bladed weapon for thrusting (Blumberg 7). The samurai specialized in mounted archery as well. They had a medium sized, very flexible bow that made firing arrows from a horse easier. With Japan's newly trained and bred horses, along with the discipline of the samurai, it made for an uns... ... the enemy's foot soldiers were close, the samurai would dismount and use their swords (Blumberg 9). That would change in the 15th century when the Chinese started to use an early version of the musket. The Japanese then had to change their fighting techniques to use spears so as not to have to dismount their horses. This was useful, since they could charge without stop, allowing them more time in between the Chinese gunfire (Blumberg 12). The Bushido Code has been around since the 13th century and is the way of the samurai. The samurai was a powerful ruling class and warrior class in medieval Japan. The samurai were powerful warriors with great respect and ethics for their country. They impacted modern Japan by passing on the high ethical and moral standards still recognized today, and it is the reason why Japan is one of the friendliest countries in the world.

Drug Laws Essay -- Drugs

1. In 1988, Father Greg Boyle made a commitment to help at-risk gang members’ change their criminal ways. Through program he developed, Homeboy Industries, gang members were offered legal jobs in order to become functional members of society. Father Greg felt that if these gang-affiliated individuals could have some alternate opportunity, they could turn their life around and end their criminal behavior. Since 1988, Father Greg has enhanced and re-developed the structure of the program, but it has definitely been a success story for many Los Angeles gang members. Father Greg was right. The control theory suggests that if individuals are raised in good morals and granted opportunities and legal paths to success (external controls), they will develop the internal controls that they use to avoid criminal behavior (Traub & Little, 1999, p. 303). Walter Reckless took the â€Å"control theory† and developed it a little further, presenting the â€Å"containment theory†. He insists that there are external and internal containments that either push or pull an individual to commit crime. An individual must be given boundaries and moral limits in order to process their desires in acceptable ways. In order to develop these limits, they must have a connection with the influential group, but the lack there of will push them into criminal behavior. Additionally, the individual must develop positive awareness and esteem (Traub & Little, 1999, p. 307). The gang members that have joined Homeboy industries, like many other gang members, have been missing a large portion of both internal and external containments. Through their own confessions they recognize that they had hard lives growing up and the gang scene was where they found a second family... ...How An Athlete's Death Led To Shoddy Drug Laws. NPR. 20 June 2011. Radio. Stamper, N. Interview by Amy Goodman. Citing Failed War on Drugs, Former Seattle Police Chief Calls for Legalization of Marijuana and All Drugs. Democracy Now. 30 March 2009. Radio. Traub, S. H., & Little, C. B. (1999).Theories of deviance (5th ed.). Itasca, Ill.: F.E. Peacock Publishers. Traub, S. H., & Little, C. B. (1999). The Current State of Differential Association Theory. Theories of deviance (5th ed., pp. 261- 285). Itasca, Ill.: F.E. Peacock Publishers. Traub, S. H., & Little, C. B. (1999). A Non-Causal Explanation: Containment Theory. Theories of deviance (5th ed., pp. 306-311). Itasca, Ill.: F.E. Peacock Publishers. Traub, S. H., & Little, C. B. (1999). A Control Theory of Delinquency. Theories of deviance (5th ed., pp. 312-325). Itasca, Ill.: F.E. Peacock Publishers.

Electronic Health Record (EHR) System Potential Threats and Measures Taken to Protect It

Since the early 1980s, information technology have improved and revolutionized every aspect of our lives. We use information technology to do our daily chores like shopping and reading the latest global news at the comfort of our living room. It replaces old challenges with new possibilities. However, one of the areas that had evolved to this new demand in information technology but rather in a slow phase is the healthcare industry. Today’s healthcare includes hospitals and private clinics. A lack of an effective management of data about a disease and the treatment for saving lives can be put at risk. In previous years medical information was stored only on paper and in one location, usually a patient's primary care physician's office or medical institute. People tend to migrate to a different area or country, thus making it difficult to transfer piles of paperwork and medical records to every point of medical institution which a patient is seeking treatment. It is even more complex when most patients visit more than a single physician or an institution and the process of being treated by a different number of nurses, consulting specialists, diagnostic technicians and administrative staff. Paper-based medical record systems are also adding the unnecessary expense to a medical institution. Registration clerks, nurses spend precious time away from patients attending to huge piles of paperwork. This adds up an enormous financial burden inclusive for the storage of the medical records and wages for the administrative support staff. Miss-kept or missing medical records adds to the lost of precious time and can lead to unnecessary or duplicating of clinical tests. However, until recently, usage of information technology has increased and become prominent part of the healthcare industry. Many large hospitals and private hospitals have made the transition from old-school paper medical records to EHR, Electronic Health Record System. Early stages of an EHR System were base on a simple side but have advance tremendously. Now EHR System is Web-based which are accessible across networks and utilizing GUI, Graphics User Interface for interactivity. Web-based EHR are easy to use, have the capabilities to organize and link information, strong multimedia presentation capabilities, works on most hardware platform and operating system in the market; which communicate through the Internet and provide access to medical records using web browsers and web technologies. Jamie R. Steck(1998), Director of IT from the Central Utah Clinic stated that â€Å"Efficiency has increased dramatically. We did an in-motion study in our records room, which showed that filing electronically is 80 percent more efficient than filing manually, and we’ve seen proof of that on a daily basis. Study shows that EHR is more efficient than the normal process of filing the paper-medical records. Health institution of many sizes faces many demands and challenges when making the transition from paper records to EHR. Healthcare institutions are working hard to reduce their reliance on handwritten records. EHR has improved patient care through greater and qui cker access to patient information thus reducing medical errors due to paper-records. It also significantly reduces test result and patient wait-times with a faster and more efficient workflow. It also reduces record-keeping time thus decreasing paperwork for administrative staff. EHR establish a better information and improved communications in a medical institution. It reduces the possibility of misplaced and lost records thus ensuring the patient record; test results are available when needed. It reduces cost on paper and supply. But just as much as its ancestor, EHR are subjected to privacy violations. Today, healthcares systems in developed countries are changing dramatically. These countries are looking into more inexpensive communication means using the internet to achieve a more efficient and high quality EHR. With the increase of health care system on information technology, we must also look into the increasing number of threats resulting from distribution and the implementations of the EHR System. Patients and doctors are aware of the security requirements base upon the system with the usage of communications over open and insecure network such as the internet. There are concerns over the privacy and security of electronic health information and they fall into two general categories: â€Å" 1. concerns about inappropriate releases of information from individual organizations 2. oncerns about the systemic flows of information throughout the health care and related industries† – National Research Committee (1997, p. 54) The first category can result either from an authorized users who intentionally or unintentionally access or distributes information in violation of the institution policy or from hackers who break into a institution’s computer system. The second categ ory refers to the open disclosure of patient health information to parties that may act against the interests of the patient or may also be alleged as invading a patient’s privacy. EHR stored at medical institution are vulnerable to internal or external threats. Internal threats includes authorized system users or medical personnel who abuse and misuses their privileges by accessing information for inappropriate reasons such as viewing their friends, neighbors, colleagues or to leak information to the press for spite, revenge, or profit. External threats or unauthorized access, which is related to the open architecture of Internet, sometimes by vindictive former employees, angry patients, network intruders, hackers or others may steal information, damage systems, or disrupt operations. Till today, there have been modest amounts of evidence to gauge the exposure of EHR to external attacks as there are still no tools for detecting attacks on EHR in the healthcare industry. In a case reported by Marbach, William D. (1983), so-called â€Å"414† group broke into a computer system at the National Cancer Institute in 1982, although no damages were reported. Study by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Computer Security Institute (CSI), CSI Director Patrice Rapalus(1996, p. 2) said, â€Å"The information age has already arrived, but most organizations are woefully unprepared . . . making] it easier for perpetrators to steal, spy, or sabotage without being noticed and with little culpability if they are. † Set of laws are being introduced for patient record privacy put strict demands on healthcare providers to protect patient information while using EHR while sharing the information with other patients. Six main factors are integrity, dependability, av ailability, confidentiality, authenticity and accountability. Patient records involves very sensitive data, which should only be disclosed to authorize users, thus confidentiality of the required data is essential. Integrity and availability of the services are also important. To accomplish the desire measure of information system security, a range of security policy models have been proposed and implemented in healthcare. One of the most widely use of security policy being adopted by medical institutions to protect patients information in a EHR System is the Role Based Access Control policy. Role Base Access Controls (RBAC) is the common policy being used in an ERH System. These include two basic types of access control mechanism that are used to protect data which are discretionary access control (DAC) and mandatory access controls (MAC). DAC is very supple hence it is not suitable for protection of health records. MAC on the other hand is stricter, allowing ample space for flexibility and it requires all users handling the records to follow a set of rules administered by the system admin. RBAC in EHR System should have the advantages of both DAC and MAC. With the RBAC approach, EHR System should adopt the roles and the authorization management in its system. In RBAC, it identifies which staffs in a medical institution are authorized to view a patient medical record. It restricted the data from being abuse or falling to the wrong hands. Each and every medical staff in a medical institution are assigned a specific role and operates the EHR System according to their role. Medical staffs are only allowed to view patients’ record that they are allowed to access. Not all data are being revealed to the every role. G. Pangalos(1998) states that: â€Å"EHR System identifies the following roles in its system: 1. Patients. They have access to their own health institution, personal and demographic data. 2. Physicians. Main Users of EHR System. Make diagnosis, admissions and treatment. Act on behalf of patients. 3. Doctors. Responsible for the laboratory tests and evaluation results. 4. Nurses. Responsible for providing daily care to patients. Don’t need to know any sensitive personal patient data. 5. Other Healthcare Professionals. Responsible to perform treatments for example psychiatric consultation. 6. Administration. Responsible for collection of the administrative, social, personal and non-personal demographic and insurance information about the patient. 7. Local authorities. Specifically Government bodies have access to health records for research or investigation purposes and any sensitive personal data will not be reveal. Department of Health and Human Services (1998), in the proposed rule for security and electronic standards, â€Å".. each organization that uses communications or networks would be required to protect communications containing health information that are transmitted electronically over open networks so that they cannot be easily intercepted and interpreted by parties o ther than the intended recipient, and to protect their information systems from intruders trying to access systems through external communication points†. (vol 63, No 155) As of the statement above given by the Department of Health and Human Services, all information that are sent over the internet must only be accessed by authorized receiver. Today’s technologies allow users to prove their authenticity and with data encryptions allow data to be transmitted safely over the medium. Data encryption should be at a satisfactory level of security to protect against intruders, thus data integrity have been compromised. User authentication must also be present with the encryption and data transmission process to ensure that the data sent are received by authorized receiver. Other than data encryption, a good firewall should also be implemented on the database server to avoid external intruders from accessing unauthorized data. Although these policies and counter measures are being implemented, unauthorized data leakages do still prevails. Medical records of celebrities and famous people are sought after by the media around world. This is due to the interest of people and money. So patient plays a part in protecting their own medical records. They have to put their trust in the medical institution where their records are being kept.